1. A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive sentence. E.g: "Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall."

2. A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. E.g: "Where do you live?"

3. A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence. E.g: "Be quiet. " OR "Have mercy upon us."

4. A sentence that expresses strong feeling is called an Exclamatory sentence. E.g: "How cold the night is!" OR "What a shame! "

1. Sentences have two parts: Subject and Predicate

2. In Subject: We name some person or thing

3. In Predicate: We say something about that person or thing

4. The Subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the Predicate; E.g: "Here comes the bus." OR "Sweet are the uses of adversity."

5. In above sentence the subject is "bus" and predicate is "comes".

6. In Imperative sentences the Subject is left out; E.g: "Sit down. [Here the Subject You is understood]." OR "Thank him. [Here too the Subject You is understood.] "

Sentence	Subject	Predicate
The cackling of geese saved Rome.	Rome	cackling of geese
The boy stood on the burning deck.	the boy	stood on the burning deck
Tubal Cain was a man of might.	Tubal Cain	a man of might
The beautiful rainbow soon faded away.	beautiful rainbow	soon faded away
The dewdrops glitter in the sunshine.	The dewdrops	glitter in the sunshine.

1. A group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase. E.g: “in a corner”. It makes sense, but not complete sense.

2. Phrases in sentences are given in italics:

1. The sun rises in the east.

2. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

1. The group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate. Such a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a Subject and a Predicate, is called a Clause.

2. Clauses in sentences are given in italics:

1. People who pay their debts are trusted.

2. We cannot start while it is raining.

Type	Description	Example
Noun.	a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing	Akbar was a great King
An Adjective	a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun	Akbar was a great King.
Pronoun	a word used instead of a noun	John is absent, because he is ill.
Verb	a word used to express an action or state	The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
An Adverb	a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb	He worked the sum quickly.
Preposition	a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else;	‘the man on the platform’ OR ‘she arrived after dinner’, ‘what did you do it for ?’.
Conjunction	a word used to join words or sentences;	Rama and Hari are cousins.
Interjection	a word which expresses some sudden feel ing	"Hurrah! We have won the game" OR "Alas! She is dead."

THE NOUN: TYPES OF NOUNS

1. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. E.g: "Asoka was a wise king."

2. The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun king might be applied to any other king as well as to Asoka. We call "Asoka" a Proper Noun, and "king" a Common Noun.

3. A Common Noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person or place. Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning.

4. Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns. E.g: "Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare of India."

Collective Noun

1. Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole. E.g: "Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee."

2. A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.

3. An army = a collection of soldiers.

4. A crowd = a collection of people.

Abstract Noun

1. Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs

2. Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery

3. Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.

4. State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.

5. The names of the Arts and Science (e.g., grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract Nouns.

6. Abstract Nouns are formed:

1. From Adjectives; Kindness from kind; honesty from honest. [Most abstract nouns are formed thus.]

2. From Verbs: Obedience from obey; growth from grow.

3. From Common Nouns; Childhood from child; slavery from slave.

4. Countable nouns (or countables) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count, e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.

5. Uncountable nouns (or uncountables) are the names of things which we cannot count, e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. They mainly denote substances and abstract things.

6. Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. For example, we say “books” but we cannot say “milks”.

Ways of Forming the Feminine of Nouns

1. By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc)

2. OR By adding -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending

3. OR The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.

4. OR By using an entirely different word

Masculine -- Feminine	Masculine -- Feminine
Bachelor	maid, spinster
Buck	doe
Bullock	heifer
Colt	filly
Drone	bee
Earl	countess
Gander	goose
Gentleman	lady
Hart	roe
Horse	mare
Monk (or friar)	nun
Nephew	niece
Ram	ewe
Wizard	witch
Stag	hind
Author -- authoress	Baron -- baroness
Heir -- heiress	Manager -- manageress
Priest -- priestess	Shepherd -- shepherdess
Host -- hostess	Founder -- foundress
Duke -- duchess	Emperor -- empress
Traitor -- traitress	Waiter -- waitress
Hero -- heroine	Czar -- czarina
Sultan -- sultana	Fox -- vixen
peacock -- peahen	Landlord -- landlady

1. The Plural of nouns is generally formed by adding -s to the singular

2. But Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch (soft), or -x form the plural by adding -es to the

3. Most Nouns ending in -o also form the plural by adding -es to the singular

4. A few nouns ending in -o merely add -s;

5. Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing -y into -i and adding -es

6. The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -for -fe into v and adding -es

7. The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf and wharf take either -s or -ves in the plural.

8. Other words ending in -for -fe add -s

9. A few nouns form their plural by changing the inside vowel of the singular

10. There are a few nouns that form their plural by adding -en to the singular; as, ox, oxen; child, children.

11. Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike;

12. Some nouns are used only in the plural.

13. As a Common Noun 'people' means a 'nation' and is used in both singular and plural; E.g: "The Japanese are a hard-working people." AND "There are many different peoples in Europe."

14. Certain Collective Nouns, though singular in form, are always used as plurals. E.g: Poultry, cattle, vermin, people, gentry.

1. These poultry are mine.

2. Whose are these cattle?

3. Vermin destroy our property and carry disease

4. Who are those people (= persons)?

15. ‘Means’ is used either as singular or plural. But when it has the meaning of ‘wealth’ it is always plural; as in

1. He succeeded by this means (or, by these means) in passing the examination.

2. His means are small, but he has incurred no debt.

Singular - plural	Singular - Plural
Commander-in-chief -- commanders-in-chief	Coat-of-mail -- coats-of-mail
Son-in-Law -- sons-in-law	Mathematics is his favourite study
Bullock	heifer
No news is good news.	India won by an innings and three runs.
Measles is infectious.	Billiards is my favourite game.
The plural of fish is fish or fishes	man - men;
woman - women;	foot - feet;
tooth - teeth;	goose - geese
mouse - mice	louse - lice
Dwarf - dwarfs / dwarves	hoof - hoofs / hooves
scarf - scarfs / scarves	wharf - wharfs / wharves
thief, thieves	wife, wives
wolf, wolves	life, lives
calf, calves	leaf, leaves
loaf, loaves	knife, knives
shelf, shelves	half, halves
elf, elves	sheaf, sheaves.
self, selves	Step-daughter -- step-daughters
Maid-servant -- maid-servants (but man-servant, plural men-servants	Daughter-in-law -- daughters-in-law
Step-son -- step-sons	Man-of-war -- men-of-war
Looker-on -- lookers-on	Passer-by -- passers-by
formula, formulae/formulas	index, indices
memorandum, memoranda	radius, radii
terminus, termini / terminuses	Axis, axes
parenthesis, parentheses	crisis, crises
hypothesis, hypotheses	basis, bases
phenomenon, phenomena;	analysis, analyses
criterion, criteria

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